Pre-Colonial Era
400s CE - the first evidence of mining activities in the area of Ghana. Earliest records show that the people of Ghana were mining gold centuries before the arrival of the Portuguese. (1)
700 - gold dust was the medium of exchange at this time, it was also used to pay taxes. "Gold-embroidered materials were commonplace." (2) 750 - small states in North Africa send merchants “further south and reach West Africa." (2) 800 - the local kings ruling in Ghana take advantage of this new trade and establish a monopoly on gold that is traded with the Arab world to the North. For Egyptians, the trek across the Sahara to Ghana took three months. (2) 800-1000 - the Kingdom of Ancient Ghana flourished. |
1240 - ancient empire of Ghana falls, one reason being due to "the desire of the then-developing kingdoms to have control over the gold trade and possibly the gold mines as well.” (3)
1300s - by this time, Ghana possessed large accumulations of gold, and used it to trade for items such as "brass, copper, shells, cloth, and iron.” (4)
1400s - at this point, trade with Europe resulted in Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian gold coinages being entirely derived from Ghana. (2)
1300s - by this time, Ghana possessed large accumulations of gold, and used it to trade for items such as "brass, copper, shells, cloth, and iron.” (4)
1400s - at this point, trade with Europe resulted in Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian gold coinages being entirely derived from Ghana. (2)
1471 - Portuguese begin occupation of the Gold Coast.
1530 - from this point onward, "various European interests began to immerse themselves in the West African gold trade.” (2) 1553 - British begin a gold trade with Ghana. Introduction of Dutch West India Company's and the British African Company's involvement through the 1700s. (2) 1595 - Dutch land on the Gold Coast. |
1642 - Dutch takeover of Elmina, signifying "the end of a 150-year period of the Portuguese occupation of the Gold Coast." Under Portuguese occupation, the area produced "8,153,426 ounces of gold, which accounted for 35.5% of world output." (2)
1670s-1780s - struggle between Dutch and English governments for control of gold production in Ghana. (2)
1670s-1780s - struggle between Dutch and English governments for control of gold production in Ghana. (2)
Pre-Colonial Mining Methods
In the very beginning of the trans-Saharan trade, gold was obtained by the collection of gold dust by inhabitants mining on a part-time basis (2). Once Arabic traders began demanding more gold, it was necessary to have expand the workforce, causing many miners to begin working full-time and developing specific skills for different parts of the process (2).
As the pre-colonial mining increased because of the trade with Arab civilizations, the most serious form of mining became digging a shaft. Miners lit fires on the quartz rock until it was hot, and then doused it with cold water so it would crack and make it easier to attain gold (1). Traditional miners in the pre-colonial stage developed three different methods of gold mining, including: 1) Alluvial mining; 2) Shallow-pit surface mining; and 3) Deep-shaft mining (1). |
Pre-Colonial Environmental Effects of Gold Mining
In pre-colonial mining, the equipment that was used was rudimentary and made it difficult to clean the area after mining was completed and return it to its natural state (3). Furthermore, environmental concerns were not of importance during this time period, unless they had an effect on "immediate economic returns" (3).
There were two major effects of pre-colonial alluvial mining on the environment:
1. Moving around the ore in the water sources (mainly rivers) disturbed the underwater environment and made the water murky as it shifted around the dirt at the bottom of the river. Because of this, the water became unclean and the people living along the river were not able to use the water (3).
2. Moving the ore around and disturbing the underwater environment also "disturbed the lifestyle of the fish that inhabited that water body," (3) which eventually resulted in less fish for consumption by people living along the river.
No chemicals during pre-colonial period were used, so there was no risk of any chemical substance contaminating the rivers. The pre-colonial environmental effects of gold mining were very minor compared to present-day effects.
There were two major effects of pre-colonial alluvial mining on the environment:
1. Moving around the ore in the water sources (mainly rivers) disturbed the underwater environment and made the water murky as it shifted around the dirt at the bottom of the river. Because of this, the water became unclean and the people living along the river were not able to use the water (3).
2. Moving the ore around and disturbing the underwater environment also "disturbed the lifestyle of the fish that inhabited that water body," (3) which eventually resulted in less fish for consumption by people living along the river.
No chemicals during pre-colonial period were used, so there was no risk of any chemical substance contaminating the rivers. The pre-colonial environmental effects of gold mining were very minor compared to present-day effects.
Colonial Era
1874 - British officially establish the Gold Coast Colony. "The first notable attempts were made by Europeans to exploit gold on a large scale." (2) 1878 - establishment of the first European gold mining company, the African Gold Coast Company, by the British. (2) 1890s - Europeans introduce modern scientific mining and gain control over the industry. Ghanaians now only allowed to act as laborers in mines. 1901-1902 - gold production increased 400%. (2) |
1940s - “pit-mining completely died away and the technology was gradually lost. All that remained of the native gold mining industry was sporadic washing for gold in river beds carried out as a hobby by the elderly and physically inactive women.” (1)
Colonial Mining Methods
When Europeans arrived, the method of gold extraction varied in different regions based on the sophistication of their iron tools (2). Over time, indigenous gold miners began to use some European techniques in mining, using "European-crafted picks and shovels, and wooden ladders were substituted for hand and footholds in mine shafts" (2).
Post-Colonial Era
1957 - Ghana attains independence. Gold production begins to deteriorate. (2)
1960 - South Africa "had fully developed its gold mining capacity," taking away the attention of foreign investors from Ghana. (2) 1972 - the government of Ghana creates a White Paper about its participation in the mining industry. "It carried a directive requesting that all mining companies operating in Ghana be reorganized as Ghanaian companies," making it difficult to gain a profit. (2) 1976 - gold output now "60% of the output of 1960." (2) 1982 - gold production reaches a 50-year low. (2) |
1983 - government launches the Economic Recovery Plan under the IMF. "The primary objective was to remove the barriers hindering the growth of export earnings; this had important implications for the gold mining industry." (2)
1990-1994 - gold output rises 250% because of increasing foreign interest.
1998 - at this point, "an estimated US$4 billion was invested in Ghana's mining sector," used as funding for exploration and establishment of new mines. (2)
2008 - by this time, "there were 39 small-scale registered mining concession holders within the Tarkwa area alone. In addition, there were over six thousand illegal miners.” (1)
2011 - The country is currently the ranked 10th worldwide in gold production, and 2nd in Africa (1). "Today, output from resident gold mines accounts for some 37% of national exports and 97% of mineral exports." (2)
1990-1994 - gold output rises 250% because of increasing foreign interest.
1998 - at this point, "an estimated US$4 billion was invested in Ghana's mining sector," used as funding for exploration and establishment of new mines. (2)
2008 - by this time, "there were 39 small-scale registered mining concession holders within the Tarkwa area alone. In addition, there were over six thousand illegal miners.” (1)
2011 - The country is currently the ranked 10th worldwide in gold production, and 2nd in Africa (1). "Today, output from resident gold mines accounts for some 37% of national exports and 97% of mineral exports." (2)